https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-025-05970-5
Regular Article
Comprehensible dynamics of quanta: from the quantum of action to the 2nd law of thermodynamics
Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, 00140, Helsinki, Finland
Received:
15
November
2024
Accepted:
1
January
2025
Published online:
14
January
2025
The 2nd law of thermodynamics is derived from the principle of least action, positing that the quantum of action is the indivisible and indestructible basic building block of everything. On their least-time paths to balance, the quanta move from the system to its surroundings, or vice versa, so that the kinetic, potential, and dissipated energy tally. When re-expressed in logarithmic terms, this current toward more probable states with decreasing free energy equates to the principle of increasing entropy, the 2nd law of thermodynamics, including path-independent dynamic and path dependent geometric phase shifts. Despite being exact, the equation of evolution to entropy maximum, equivalent to free energy minimum, cannot be solved because evolution, consuming its own driving forces, becomes path dependent. Thus, the future remains open within free energy bounds. As discussed, the entropy derived from the statistical physics of open quantum systems sums states distinguishable in energy; whereas, Boltzmann’s entropy enumerates microstates indistinguishable in energy. Consequently, the statistical physics of open systems differs from that of closed systems: The irreversible evolution in the state space toward thermodynamic balance contrasts with the steady-state revolution in phase space between conceivable configurations. This concrete comprehension explains, among other things, that increasing disorder is not a law of nature itself but a consequence of the law to attain balance with incoherent surroundings in the least time.
© The Author(s) 2025
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