https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-026-07608-6
Regular Article
Monte Carlo simulation of cosmic-ray exposure in traditional architecture of the equatorial region using PHITS: a case study of Cameroon
1
University Institute of Wood Technology, University of Yaounde I, P.O. Box 306, Mbalmayo, Cameroon
2
Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, P.O. Box 812, Yaoundé, Cameroon
3
Radiological Safety and Nuclear Security Authority, P O Box 33732, Yaoundé, Cameroon
4
Nuclear Science and Engineering Center, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, 319-1195, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki, Japan
5
Research Centre for Nuclear Science and Technology, Institute of Geological and Mining Research, P.O. Box 4110, Yaoundé, Cameroon
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Received:
11
July
2025
Accepted:
24
March
2026
Published online:
29
April
2026
Abstract
Cosmic radiation exposure in both traditional and modern architectural structures has been assessed using the particle and heavy ion transport code system (PHITS) Monte Carlo simulation, across various ethnic regions of Cameroon. The study was conducted considering traditional architectures associated with ethnic groups in the West (Bamileke), Center (Bafia), South (Fang-Beti), Littoral (Sawa), East (Baka), Northwest (Tikar), and Southwest (Bakweri). The traditional architectures in these regions are primarily constructed using locally available materials such as wood, bamboo, thatch (straw), and mud bricks. Building shielding factors for traditional and modern architectures ranges from 0.964 to 0.999 and from 0.859 to 0.892 with an average value of 0.990 ± 0.009 and 0.872 ± 0.010, respectively, during solar minimum activity. The total average contribution of muons (μ⁺ and μ−) in traditional architectures was found to account for 64% and 66% of the total dose during solar minimum and maximum activity, respectively. In contrast, protons exhibited a significantly lower average contribution of 0.43% and 0.40% during solar minimum and maximum periods, respectively. The calculated annual cosmic-ray doses were 0.32 ± 0.02 mSv (Bamileke), 0.27 ± 0.01 mSv (Bafia), 0.27 ± 0.02 mSv (Fang-Beti), 0.23 ± 0.02 mSv (Sawa), 0.27 ± 0.02 mSv (Baka), 0.32 ± 0.01 mSv (Tikar), and 0.22 ± 0.03 mSv (Bakweri). In both solar conditions, traditional houses generally exhibit a higher annual cosmic-ray dose compared to modern houses. All values are below the global average of 0.39mSv reported by UNSCEAR. These results indicate no significant radiological risk to inhabitants of traditional architectures from cosmic-ray exposure. However, in addition to providing comfort and structural strength, modern houses offer better protection against cosmic radiation.
In the original publication of this article, the co-author’s name was incorrectly written as “Sato Tatsuhiko”.
The correct name is “Tatsuhiko Sato”.
The original article has been corrected.
A correction to this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-026-07856-6.
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© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Società Italiana di Fisica and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2026
modified publication 2026
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
