https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-025-07260-6
Review
Induced radioactivity in proton therapy facilities: mechanisms, measurement, and mitigation strategies
1
Samarkand State University named after Sharof Rashidov, 140104, Samarkand, Uzbekistan
2
Institute of Nuclear Physics, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, 100214, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
3
Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 730000, Lanzhou, China
4
Laboratory for Ultrafast Transient Facility, Chongqing University, 401331, Chongqing, China
5
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
a
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Received:
29
August
2025
Accepted:
25
December
2025
Published online:
14
January
2026
Abstract
Induced radioactivity is an inherent consequence of proton therapy (PT), arising from nuclear interactions of high-energy proton beams and their secondary neutrons with facility materials. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the mechanisms, measurement, and mitigation of residual radioactivity in PT facilities. Key activation pathways include proton-induced reactions and secondary neutron capture, producing radionuclides with half-lives from seconds to several years, with the majority of radiological concern in the range of minutes to years. These isotopes can pose radiation exposure risks to maintenance staff, particularly in activated components such as brass apertures, steel assemblies, and concrete shielding. Measurement techniques include gamma spectrometry, activation foils, and Monte Carlo simulations (e.g., FLUKA, GEANT4), although uncertainties in reaction cross sections and material composition can limit the accuracy of predictions, especially for long-lived species. Mitigation strategies encompass material selection with low-activation alloys and concretes, adoption of pencil-beam scanning to minimize component irradiation, engineering controls such as modular shielding, ventilation for airborne radionuclides, and remote handling, as well as administrative protocols including cooldown periods and decay storage. Proactive management through evidence-based design and ALARA-compliant monitoring ensures regulatory compliance and sustains PT as a safe treatment modality. Continued improvement in nuclear data and shielding materials will enhance predictive capability and support further reduction of residual doses in future facilities.
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© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Società Italiana di Fisica and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2026
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
