https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-025-06794-z
Regular Article
Micro-PIXE as a screening technique for evaluating gold nanoparticle uptake in U87 glioblastoma cancer cells
1
Ion Implantation Laboratory, Physics Institute - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
2
Laboratory of Solids and Surfaces, Chemistry Department - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
3
Cell Signaling and Plasticity Laboratory, Biophysics Department - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
4
Interdisciplinary Center of Nanoscience and Micro-Nanotechnology, School of Technology, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
Received:
28
December
2024
Accepted:
13
August
2025
Published online:
10
September
2025
Nanoparticles have emerged as a promising tool for biomedical applications, including drug delivery, diagnostics, and therapeutics. In this study, we evaluated the cellular uptake of gold nanoparticles functionalized with four different molecules: SSQ, Chitosan, PVP, and sodium citrate. The nanoparticles were characterized using UV–Vis spectroscopy and TEM, confirming their size compatibility for a reliable comparison. The cellular uptake was analyzed using the micro-PIXE technique, providing spatially resolved elemental maps. Therefore, we propose using micro-PIXE as a screening technique for the rapid assessment of whether a nanoparticle formulation is being internalized by cells. The results demonstrated that surface functionalization significantly influences the uptake and cellular response. PVP-coated AuNPs exhibited the highest uptake efficiency, accompanied by significant cellular stress. Chitosan-coated AuNPs showed moderate uptake with lower stress levels and some accumulation spots, with cells maintaining relatively healthier morphologies. Sodium citrate-coated AuNPs resulted in dispersed uptake patterns and significant stress, including branching morphologies indicative of heightened cellular stress. SSQ-coated AuNPs displayed nanoparticle uptake characterized by dispersed gold signals but without localized accumulation. Interestingly, cells exposed to SSQ-coated AuNPs retained their healthy star-shaped morphology with pseudopodia, suggesting lower stress levels and high biocompatibility. These findings highlight the critical role of surface functionalization in modulating nanoparticle uptake and cellular responses. SSQ-coated AuNPs emerged as a promising candidate for applications prioritizing biocompatibility, while PVP coating may offer advantages for applications requiring higher uptake efficiency. This study provides a significant understanding for optimizing nanoparticle designs for specific biomedical purposes.
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© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Società Italiana di Fisica and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2025
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
